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Productive Bilingualism and Translator Education by Mr. Wanwei Wu Chapter 2. The present chapter aims to tell what the “productive bilingualism” learning model is. After providing background information about bilingual, bilingualism, bilingual education, the author points out the limitation of existing “acculturation models” and explains the advantages of this new learning model. Bilingual and Bilingualism “In François Grosjean’s famous phrase, ‘a bilingual is not two monolinguals in one person’” L2 users are different from monolinguals in many ways: 1) L2 users’ knowledge of a second language is not the same as that of native speakers even at advanced levels. 2) L2 users’ knowledge of their first language (L1) is not the same as that of monolingual native speakers. 3) L2 users think in different ways to monolinguals.” (Vivian Cook) “Learning another language makes people think more flexibly, increases language awareness and leads to better attitudes towards other cultures. Indeed these have often been seen as among the educational benefits of acquiring another language.” (Vivian Cook) “All in all, learning another language changes people in many ways. The languages exist side by side in the same person, affecting both the two languages and the person as a whole. The benefits of learning a second language are becoming a different kind of person, not just adding another language.” (Vivian Cook) As for classification of bilinguals, Tove Skutnabb-Kangas (1984: 75-80) lists the following factors to be considered: 1) pressure to become bilingual; 2) the prerequisites for bilingualism; 3) the route by which the individual has become bilingual, 4) and the consequences entailed in failing to become bilingual. With this in mind, she identifies 4 groups of bilinguals as: 1) elite bilinguals; 2) children from linguistic majorities; 3) children from bilingual families; 4) children from linguistic minorities. (requoted from Peter K Kornakov) Bilingualism can also be classified in terms of proficiency as balanced bilingualism (equal proficiency), dominant bilingualism (one higher than the other), semibilingualism (both low efficiency), prestigious bilingualism (both high status languages), multilingualism (three or more languages). (http://www.blss.portsmouth.sch.uk/typesofbil.shtml) The various classifications of bilinguals are the result of different interests of researchers in the field. Those who are concerned about the age of acquisition of bilingualism use the types like early bilinguals and late bilinguals and further subdivide early bilinguals into simultaneous (two languages acquired simultaneously as L1) and sequential bilinguals (L2 acquired after L1) while those who are concerned about the environment of acquisition ob bilingualism use the terms like elite bilinguals (choose to study L2) and natural bilinguals (grow up in multilingual communities). (Valdes, Guadalupe ) Apart from the similar pair: simultaneous bilingualism (acquire both languages simultaneously before age three) or successive bilingualism (L1 acquired first before age three, L2 learned later) in terms of time of language acquisition, Ernie Smith makes another classification in terms of language proficiency: active bilingualism or passive bilingualism: “When a person understands two languages but speaks only one of them they are considered to be a passive bilingual. When a person both understands and speaks two languages they are considered to be an active bilingual.” ( Ernie Smith) Bilingualism is not something we can obtain once and for all. In order to maintain at a high level, the bilingual person needs to use both languages continuously and with great effort. Peter K Kornakov holds the view that bilingualism is a dynamic process with four stages or phases: establishment of bilingualism (either in a natural way or learning by an artificial way), established or stable bilingualism, the process of losing bilingualism (forgetting or using less and less), and lost bilingualism (total loss of one or two language proficiency). (requoted from Peter K Kornakov) Another point to be highlighted is that biculturalism is sure to appear together with the development of bilingualism. “As Baetens Beardsmore (1986: 23) remarks: "The further one progresses in bilingual ability, the more important the bicultural element becomes, since higher proficiency increases the expectancy rate of sensitivity towards the cultural implications of language use." (requoted from Peter K Kornakov) In this sense, various “acculturation models” are proposed to deal with the identity problems in the process of bilingualism, which will be discussed in the productive bilingualism section. “Goethe, the German philosopher, once said: The person who knows only one language does not truly know that language. Bilingualism is an important linguistic and intellectual accomplishment.” (Cummins, Jim Bilingual Children's Mother Tongue: Why Is It Important for Education?) Bilingual education In the US, bilingual education program is for immigrants whose English are too poor for them to follow English medium classes. It is transitional, for they will leave for English only program once their English is good enough. In such programs, L1 is usually considered an instrumental with which to acquire English proficiency. The development of L1 literacy is not what they care most, therefore their ultimate goal is not bilingual but monolingual---acquisition of English proficiency. (Kenji Hakuta ) As for bilingual education, contradictory views can be found. Some believes that subjects taught in L1 will not jeopardize students’ English learning, and that content knowledge newly learned in L1 will gradually transfer to their new language, English. Others, however, maintain that students will develop L1 dependency that ultimately will affect their progress in English acquisition if they don’t get full English immersion. (English Week, 1999 requoted from Sherine) Productive bilingualism Similarly, foreign language learning entails culture learning as well as cognitive growth and personality development. (Gao, p.27) However, at the social psychological level bilingualism brings unfavorable consequences to the learner. This is where learners’ attitude, motivation and cultural identities exert impact on learning outcome. According to John Schumann (1978)’s acculturation model, there are three situations of acculturation: assimilation, preservation and adaptation, which is determined by the varying degrees of social and psychological distances between the learner and the target language culture. Assimilation happens when the learner embrace target language and culture totally abandoning its own life style and values, which supposedly results in learning English well but will end in a monolingualism or monoculturalsim, for “the learner, once fully assimilated into C2, will not be able to “preserve” any of his or her L1 and C1 identities”. (Gao, p.35) Preservation is the opposite of assimilation in that the learner maintains his or her L1 and C1 identities and rejects those of the TL group, which results in poor English level pidginization or fossilization. “The social context model by Clement (1980) assumes that L2 learning includes not only the learning of language skills but also the adoption of other patterns of behavior of the C2 community. Consequently, L2 learning is bound to result in changes of self-identity” (Gao, p.40) There are two opposing forces “integrativeness---the desire to become an accepted member of the other culture” and “fear of assimilation---the fear that such belonging might result in the loss of the first language and culture” (p.149) (Gao, p.40) According to Gao, the models reviewed share the following view, i.e. “additive bilingualism” and “subtractive bilingualism”. This distinction is corresponding to Schumann’s “assimilation” and “adaptation” and Clement’s “assimilation” and “integration”. “When L2 learning involves C2 assimilation and threatens to replace C1 identity, it results in “subtractive bilingualism”. L1 together with C1 identity is replaced by L2 and C2 identity resulting in an immature personality deprived of self-awareness. When no such threat is imposed and the learner retains C1 identity while acquiring a C2 identity, the learning results in “additive bilingualism”. Each language and culture identity has half a role to play in the individual’s communicative activities resulting in a neurotic personality suffering from the split of two self-identities. (Gao, p.42 , pp.145-146) “Landry (1987) defined the phenomena of complete additive bilingualism1 as (a) a high level of proficiency in both communicative and cognitive-academic aspects of L1 and L2; (b) maintenance of a strong ethnolinguistic identity and positive beliefs toward one's own language and culture while holding positive attitudes toward the second language; and (c) the opportunity to use one's first language without diglossia (p. 110).” (requoted from Hitomi Oketani) In Gao’s opinion, the acculturation models suffer from such weaknesses as limitation in the type learning environment, i.e. L2 with high status, a static view of culture values, learner’s lower level needs, defective personality outcome---split and alienated self-identity, a lack of accounts of the interaction between C1 and C2----what positive results of “additive bilingualism, in what manner. (Gao, p.50) That’s why improvement is need if the acculturation models are applied to EFL learners in China. Having reviewed Maslow’s theory of basic need hierarchy and self-actualization, Marxist concept of social development, traditional Chinese philosophies such as Confucianism and Taoism, Gao highlights the links between them as the theoretical basis of her new L2 learning model: “the perception of the individual as endowed with self-awareness and driven to develop such awareness; a holistic view of self and society; a general tendency of transcending dichotomies.” (Gao, p.64) Therefore, A self-actualizing L2 learner is proposed to possess the following characteristics: 1) an open attitude, a genuine desire to understand the new culture and to improve one’s native culture; 2) excellent linguistic and communicative competence; 3) critical evaluation of both C1 and C2; 4) incorporation of different cultures---not a split personality, but a multicultural person with strong native culture identity; 5) creativity---capable of using L2 and C2 as an instrument to fulfill creative potentials. (Gao, pp.65-66) In a word, “productive bilingualism” takes into consideration the interaction between two culture systems, and emphasize the favorable development of the learners who are both creative and integrated, someone who are possessed with linguistic competence, communicative competence as well as critical competence bracing the foreign culture while retaining their own cultural heritage. The phrase “productive bilingualism”, in Gao’s words, refers to “the command of the target language and that of the native language positively reinforce each other; deeper understanding and appreciation of the target culture goes hand in hand with deeper understanding and appreciation of the native culture. In the process of learning another language and related culture, the learner’s personality becomes more open and integrated at the same time.” (Gao Yihong’s Abstract) So far, we have discussed “productive bilingualism” model from EFL teacher’s perspective. What it means to translation teacher is the problem to be discussed in the next chapter. Related Articles
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